Stages of Behavioral Change

Stages of Behavioral Change Introduction In our day to day interactions, we encounter people and circumstances that require us to change our behavior. In other cases, we ourselves want to change our own behavior for personal reasons. There exist no standard procedures for behavioral change that can be used to govern the process through which individuals change their behavioral trends.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Stages of Behavioral Change specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, some people have argued that individuals change their behaviors when the cost of not changing a particular behavior exceeds the cost of changing that behavior (Fieger, 2009). Through our own understanding of individual functioning, we can choose to change our behaviors without waiting for the negative impacts associated with the behavior to motivate us. Psychologists have developed various models and theories in attempt to describe various stages along a behavior change continuum (FHI, 2004). The process of self behavioral change involves various stages as outlined by DiClemente and Norcross (FHI, 2004). The precontemplation stage involves individual’s recognition of an existing problem in order to make a decision to change the behavior (FHI, 2004). Contemplation stage is the stage where the individual acknowledges the problem and seriously considers changing it while preparation for action involves individual decision to change the specific behavior within a specified period of time (FHI, 2004). Finally, the action stage constitutes the ability of an individual to display consistency in the new behavior and maintenance which requires the individual to display the same consistency for more than six months (FHI, 2004). This is the general process through which individuals abandon undesirable habits and acquire new behavioral trends and it is also the model that forms the basis for therapeutic behavioral change. After having uncovered t hat I spend approximately 3000 minutes talk time on my phone every month, I realized that I needed to change my behavior regarding phone use since my monthly phone bill was very expensive and my mother kept insisting on the side effects associated with cell phone use. In addition, I spent considerable amounts of time on my phone consequently promoting time wastage which negatively impacted on my school work. The radio frequency energy from electromagnetic radiations emitted through the antenna of mobile phones is believed to affect the brain and other head tissues (NCI, n d).Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Numerous studies conducted to investigate the relationship between cell phone use and the risk of brain tumors reveal no increased risk with increase in call duration in some incidences while some studies suggested slightly increase risk for certain types of brain tumors as a result of increased cell phone use (NCI, n d). This perceived cancer threat was the major factor that motivated to change my behavior. Although I was reluctant at initial stages of the process claiming that the side effects of cell phones are non existent and if they were, my phone was adequately secure, extensive research on studies conducted on the side effects of cell phone as well as the need to reduce my monthly phone bill heavily influenced my decision and determination to cut off on my cell phone use. After acknowledging that excessive use of my cell phone was adversely implicating on my finances and may affect my long term health condition, I decided to undergo an eight week behavioral transformation process after which I would cut down my cell phone use by half. To ensure successful outcomes of the process, I sought information an advice from people who had a similar problem from where I acquired problem solving choices (FHI 2004). The people suggested the methods tha t they used to reduce the amount of time they spent on their cell phones which included the use of e mail and other social networks such as face book and myspace to interact with people rather than making phone calls. In addition, other people preferred sending text messages while others utilized face to face communication whenever it was possible. This information considerably promoted my behavioral changing process since I applied all these strategies through out the process and successfully managed to cut down my phone use significantly. Through out the process of behavioral transformation, I encountered various challenges that significantly hindered my ability to cut down on my phone use. Numerous interaction incidences required immediate feedback hence I preferred calling people rather than sending emails or messages to them as this may take them a longer time to respond. Further, my friends with whom we used to communicate for long durations of time using cell phones continued to call me for long hours and it was difficult to convince them to similarly cut down on their cell phone use. In addition, since I had been used to the habit for a long period of time, the urge to make unnecessary phone calls persisted during the process and proved very difficult to fight it.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Stages of Behavioral Change specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More At the end of the eight weeks period, I had managed to cut down my phone use by a considerable amount of time. Although I had not managed to achieve my target of reducing my phone use to 1500 minutes per month by the end of the period, I achieved an average 40% reduction in calling time upto 1800 minutes talk time in the eight week period which I intend to reduce further through continuous implementation of the strategies that I applied during the period of behavioral change. Since behavioral change is a continuous process, I am optim istic that through dedication and commitment to change my behavior, with time I will be able to achieve my target and reduce the amount of time I spend calling on my cell phone for the safety of my health as well as financial status. Conclusion Behavioral change is largely motivated by an individual’s core beliefs which constitute the ideas that one believes to be true about him as well as the world as he conceives it to be (Fieger, 2010). Further, an individual’s attitude, which is the focal point through which he views the world, is highly informed by his values and principles establish the foundations of the individual’s identity and his conceptions of ideal behavior (Fieger, 2010). This is clearly evident in the process of my behavioral change which was highly influenced by the desire to live a healthy life and to manage my time and financial resources efficiently. Since I value my health very much, various health risks issues associated with cell phone use motivated me to reduce my cell phone talk time in order to diminish chances of developing such ailments. In addition, the general prevalence of time and resource management in the contemporary society further prompted me to change my behavior in order to conform to the society’s desirable values. Reference List FHI (2004). Behavior change- a summary of four major theories. Web. Fieger, H. (2009). Behavior change: a view fro inside out. New York: Morgan James publishing.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More NCI (Not dated). Cell phone cancer risk. Web.

Guide the way with subheading signposts - Emphasis

Guide the way with subheading signposts Guide the way with subheading signposts Its not always true that your readers will want to read everything youve written particularly if its a 300 page document. Even if youve done all you can to break it up and make it as readable as possible, the demands of time we all face may mean they can only skim it. Subheads can signal to your reader what linked paragraphs are about and help them to navigate through more easily to the most relevant parts. They also help you to check back over your own route: did you pick the best way? Transition words (so, however, on the other hand, nevertheless, moreover, furthermore etc.) also signpost meaning to your reader, helping them to understand your points and stay with you through your changes of direction as you motor towards your conclusion. Be careful though: endless moreovers and furthermores can be tedious and wont stitch a loose collection of random thoughts into a compelling argument, no matter how many you use. Far better to plan first and work out a logical structure even before you touch your keyboard. Theres more on subheads and structure in our 60-page Write Stuff style guide. To get your complimentary copy, click here and select style guide from the drop-down menu.

Heat Emergency Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Heat Emergency Plan - Essay Example Many heat - wave plans for several communities from around the world have already been developed and these have been included in the bibliography for this report. 1 2 3 A heat - wave response plan is often a plan under a health emergency disaster plan and such a plan places an emphasis on helping people to protect themselves by seeking a cooler environment, with high quality medical assistance being extended to the community, especially the elderly. Although the precise procedures for presenting an alert warning about an impending heat - wave vary from country to country, France serves as a good example because of its experience with a recent devastating heat - wave. The biometrological advisory system in France presents a first forecast announcement to health professionals and civil service as well as social correspondents 4 to 7 days before the event. A further warning forecast is issued to professionals, the media and the public 1 – 3 days before the event and this is followed by a four – color biometrological advisory to the public one day before the event. The colors green, yellow, orange and red point to the intensity of the danger that can be associated with an impending event, including a heat - wave. 4 Thus, it is possible to predict a heat - wave emergency and to plan for recovery and response. Older people are often more seriously affected by heat - waves because they have lost the resilience to cope with extremes of temperature. The plan tries to provide a well coordinated response by public agencies to the heat wave and the agencies that are likely to be involved include hospitals and health services, education, Police, Fire Services and the Wildlife Service. The heat - wave plan is activated once an extreme weather event is certain and the authority to do this often rests with the Medical Controller or an equivalent office for a region. 5 Advising people

Analytic review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Analytic review - Essay Example Both Thesydides and Aristophanes treat Cleon with clear despise. At the same time, their texts offer sufficient evidence that the political relationship between the Athenian political leaders and the demos was erotically colored. It is eroticism that serves the background of both Pericles and Cleon’s political activity as opposites. In this case, Cleon has been historically perceived as a mere parody of Pericles. He seems to have embodied all features that are not characteristic of Pericles as depicted by Aristophanes. At the same time, this vision helps to reveal much about Pericles. Dr Wohl relies on reading their politics not just through the specific features exhibited by Cleon and Pericles, but through understanding the essence of the eroticism inherent in political visions of the demos and its leaders. This leads to emergence of an elaborate political erotica. Within the limited societal model represented by Athens, the politician and the orator at once gets the support of the demos through violent eros. His open mouth epitomizes his desire to make his listeners open their orifices, too. So they gape at him. Erotically, this pederastic relationship puts the orator in a position of eromenos. This is how Cleon is viewed by Thusydides. Pericles, on his part, is believed not to descend to using the violent eros with fellatio and other sexual practices due to his authority. He sublimates the sexual desire into his authority. Yet, the demos retains his sexual desire which is repressed. The difference is Cleon acknowledges the desire and builds his erotic relationship with the demos on this, while Pericles does not, although he also acts in the same paradigm. In the last section of the chapter, Cleon’s political style is analyzed in terms of his rhetorical eros and then compared with that of Plutarch’s Pericles. For Cleon, this rhetorical eros is the essence of democracy, when the orator pleases the demos by the effeminizing

Prevention and Control of Locally Endemic Diseases

Prevention and Control of Locally Endemic Diseases Worldwide, countries are facing various public health problems but at unequal intensity. Low and middle-income countries are more suffering from high burden of disease than developed countries (Lopez et al., 2006). Public health issues in the world have existed for hundreds of years and to cope with them different interventions from different people have been put in place and have been improved over time depending upon new health-related discoveries. In September 1978, World Health Organisation in collaboration with The United Nations Childrens Fund organised the famous International Conference on Primary Healthcare in Alma-Ata, former Soviet Union, where 3000 delegates from various national governments and international bodies convened to find new ways of dealing with public health setbacks. This conference was a landmark in the promotion of population health around the world given the introduction of the theme of Health for All with the slogan Health for All by the Year 2000 (Wooding, Nagaddya Nakaggwa, 2012). In the Declaration issued at the end of the conference, Primary Healthcare was defined as essential healthcare based on practical, scientifically sound and socially acceptable methods and technology made universally accessible to individuals and families in the community through their full participation and at cost that the community and country can afford to maintain at every stage of their development in the spirit of self-reliance and self-determination (World Health Organisation, 1978). In this essay, with relevant examples, the explicit meaning of this definition will be discussed. Later on, gaps and lessons drawn from the conceptualisation and implementation of Primary Healthcare in Rwanda will be identified. Finally, the relevance of Primary Healthcare in the Rwandan health system will be examined. A.EXPLICIT MEANING OF DEFINITION OF PRIMARY HEALTHCARE ACCORDING TO WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION The definition of primary healthcare, as it was issued in the Alma-Ata Conference Declaration, was general and needed some precisions and common understanding to avoid any misinterpretation. To fully grasp the explicit meaning of primary healthcare, as was defined by the World Health Organisation, it worth, firstly, to break it into basic terms: A.1.Primary healthcare as essential and appropriate activities for promoting the health of the population Primary healthcare is a set of activities aimed at promoting the health status of the population. Through these activities, prevailing health problems that the community suffer are addressed properly by providing promotive, preventive, curative and rehabilitative services (World Health Organisation, 1978). World Health Organisation (1978) states that the essential services that primary healthcare would provide were : education on prevailing diseases and the ways of preventing and controlling them; promotion of food supply and proper nutrition; maternal and child healthcare including family planning; adequate supply of safe water and basic sanitation; immunisation against major infectious diseases; prevention and control of local endemic diseases, appropriate treatment of common diseases and injuries; and provision of essential drugs. These services were expected to vary according to the country and community provided their economic and social aspects that they reflect and from which they evolve and health system had the social responsibility to avail essential healthcare to all (World Health Organisation, 1978). A.1.1.Education on prevailing diseases and the methods of preventing and controlling them This component of primary healthcare aims to support personal and community social development by informing them through education for health. The enhancement of their life skills leads to behaviour change at individual or collective level in order to tackle health problems prevailing in their community. Additionally, this activity makes people aware of other factors that determine their overall health like environmental factors, lifestyle and genetics. As a result, people are empowered to have informed options to have control over their own health and over those factors determining their health status. Various ways are used ranging from mass media tools to simple messages transmitted to individuals or to the community regarding the strategies to fight against common diseases in their communities (Wooding, Nagaddya Nakaggwa, 2012). Further, health educational materials can be developed, supplied in the schools by those working in education sector to be integrated in health system. To illustrate this activity in the community, the strategies regarding the prevention of malaria should include the education on what is malaria, its causes, signs and symptoms of the disease, treatment and preventive measures in place. A.1.2.Promotion of food supply and proper nutrition The Promotion of food supply and proper nutrition in the families and in the community in general is a cornerstone in fighting against ill-health. Under nutrition and micronutrients deficiencies mostly in women in reproductive age and children largely contribute to a global burden of disease (Caulfield al., 2006). A.1.3.Maternal and child health including family planning Maternal and child morbidity and mortality rates, mostly in resource limited countries, are still high and more action is needed to tackle this public health issue. Women and childrens deaths are attributed to the causes which in many cases are preventable and avoidable through collaboration of various stakeholders (Wooding, Nagaddya Nakaggwa, 2012). A.1.4.Adequate supply of safe water and improved sanitation This component of primary healthcare ensures that population has not only access to safe and clean water but also to clean environment. The role of contaminated water and environment in spreading diseases is known. The supply of safe and adequate water, sanitation and disposal of liquid and solid waste play a key role preventing diseases transmission (Howard et al., 2002). A.1.5.Immunisation program against major diseases Immunisation against major diseases plays a key role in preventing serious contagious diseases mostly in children like Tuberculosis, measles, tetanus, whooping cough, etc .Women in reproductive age are also vaccinated for Tetanus. A.1.6. Prevention and control of local endemic diseases Some persisting diseases in a community contribute to the burden of disease and are attributable to the increasing morbidity and mortality in many countries. Regular screening and appropriate treatment of these diseases done by skilled healthcare workforce with appropriate health technology are key to the control of them (Wooding, Nagaddya Nakaggwa, 2012). A.1.7. Appropriate treatment of common diseases and injuries This component of primary healthcare deals with the treatment of common diseases and injuries that members of the community suffer. These diseases include common infectious diseases that prevails in the community, skin lesions due to injuries, infections or other disease conditions that affect the skin all of which contribute to the burden of disease. A.1.8.Provision of essential drugs The provision of essential drugs contributes greatly in effective management of common pathological conditions in the community. They are of an utmost importance in preventing and treating diseases which have a greater impact on lives of millions of people around the world. Essential drugs save lives and improve health (Balkan et al., 2013). A.2.Primary healthcare as essential activities based on practical, scientifically sound and socially acceptable methods and technology To achieve its ultimate goal, which is better health for all, primary healthcare should be evidence-guided. Primary healthcare practice has to be based on scientifically-proved methods, techniques, equipments and drugs (World Health Organisation, 1978). To avert health problems, various methods, techniques, equipments and drugs are used in prevention, diagnosis, treatment of diseases and patient rehabilitation once the disease in treated. Selection of health technology to be used has not to be only based on scientific evidences but also on its affordability and acceptability in the context of local value, culture and belief (World Health Organisation, 2011). For example, primary healthcare providers should use those healthcare technologies that enable clients to have access to high quality, safe and cost-effective healthcare. A.3.Primary healthcare should be made universally accessible to individuals and families in the community All members of the community should equally and universally have access to health services regardless of their social economic standing, religion, sex, age, race, language or geographic location and to ensure that it is effectively achieved, the concept of equity should be taken into consideration. The availability of health services itself is not the assurance that the primary healthcare would be successful. There are other components to be addressed to ensure that health services made universally accessible are appropriately used by all members of the community. World Health Organisation (1978) recommended that states government should make use of available resources effectively by increasing the funds allocated for health and firstly giving priority to the extension of primary healthcare to disadvantaged communities. Countries should make sure that all barriers including social economic barriers are properly addressed by reducing exclusion and social economic disparities to help those in need to have access to health services. A.4.Primary healthcare should involve full participation of community members at a cost that the community and the country can afford to maintain at every stage of their development in the spirit of self-reliance and self-determination The participation of communities in primary healthcare care activities forms an integral part in the health system. Central level should take into consideration the role of communities that play in primary healthcare activities planning process. To achieve this, communities have to be enabled to understand their role, especially in primary healthcare strategies and in the development process at community level in general, by providing with them the guidance and the necessary information that they do not have at their level. Once community members fully understand the part they play in the national primary healthcare strategy and in the overall development process at community level, then they are able to give their contribution in the formulation of primary healthcare programmes by examining themselves the health problems that they face in their community, setting priorities, adjusting national solutions to their local communities and organising themselves and put in place support an d control mechanisms (World Health Organisation, 1978). Also, the effectiveness of primary healthcare depends on the use of means that are affordable and acceptable by both the community and the country. The necessity of involvement of other health system components and other sectors that contribute to general countrys social economic development is of paramount importance in the implementation of primary healthcare programmes as health cannot be attained by the health sector alone (World Health Organisation, 1978).The linkage between primary healthcare and other sectors in the context of community development needs a coordinated effort in planning process at the community level. The joined effort from various community development stakeholders results in a sort of collaboration which has a greater impact on primary healthcare. As an illustration of the above, malnutrition reduction programme in less than five should involve community members, healthcare workers, and agricultural worker as they might have the key information that can help in planning process. Additionally, community members can actively participate in the implementation of some components of the programme jointly with other development initiatives from other social economic development sectors. B.GAPS AND LESSONS DRAWN FROM THE CONCEPTUALISATION OF PRIMARY HEALTHCARE IN RWANDA The implementation of primary healthcare in Rwanda has been proven to be effective in recent years. Despite the four years of civil war and genocide that left more than one million of people dead, thousands of hundreds displaced and health system totally collapsed, Rwanda has made remarkable progress in improving the health status of its population (Rodriguez Samuels, 2011). The above remarkable progress is imputable to various factors including ambitious political will that predominantly played in key. Health sector reforms which included community health insurance commonly known as mutuelle de santà © and a boost of health services done by providing the incentives to healthcare staff through performance-based financing schemes have also been a cornerstone in the achievements of such results. Furthermore, strong leadership, strong health policies together with involvement of community health workers in participatory decentralisation and effective coordination of donations from health and development partners have been implemental in implementation of primary healthcare strategies. B.1.Lessons to be leant Primary healthcare conceptualisation and implementation, in Rwanda case, offers great lessons to be learnt for future primary healthcare initiatives either in Rwanda itself or elsewhere in the world mostly in resources-limited countries. Rodriguez and Samuels (2011) highlighted that putting in place a strong leadership and accountability mechanisms at all levels, involvement and creation of ownership of health services seekers, collaboration of all stakeholders in planning process supported by evidence-based policies are more likely to help in achieving the desired outcomes of primary healthcare as it has been shown for Rwandas experience. B.2.Gaps In spite of the above mentioned remarkable achievements that Rwanda has made in implementation of primary healthcare, there is still chasm to be addressed.

Mental illness and prison

From the 1960’s to the 1980’s, the deinstitutionalization movement demanded that the mentally ill be treated in the community, using new drug therapies that appeared to control even the most extreme behaviors of the mentally ill.   This liberation of psychiatric patients was reinforced by court decisions that awarded certain legal rights to the emotionally ill.   But few community-based programs were developed to treat psychiatric patients effectively.   Released to the community without adequate support and treatment services, the mentally ill gravitated to criminal confinement facilities for offenders, particularly the jail but also to the prisons of the United States. It is estimated that about 15 percent of offenders imprisoned at any time have severe or acute mental illnesses, such as schizophrenia, manic-depression illness, and depression.   Approximately 10 to 15 percent of persons with these three illnesses die by suicide.   Yet current treatment is extremely effective, if given.   Prisoners tend to be in poor mental health and about 80 percent of male prisoners and 80 percent of female jail inmates will, over their lifetime, have at least one psychiatric disorder. The greater the level of disability while in prison, the more likely the inmate is to receive mental health services.   In practice, proportionately more female prisoners use mental health services than do males, and whites are more likely to seek or secure prison mental health services than others.   At least half of the inmates who need such treatment go without it (Sigurdson, 2001). While the U.S. Supreme Court has not found that inmates have a constitutional right to treatment, it has ruled an inmate’s constitutional right to medical treatment includes the right to treatment for serious emotional illness.   The correction system is caught in the middle.   Institutions are not required to provide services simply because their clients are criminals, and thus have shifted critical funds to other uses, such as increased security staffing.   The threat of potential litigation has meant that some revision and provisions of mental health services for seriously ill inmates is necessary. As the mentally ill become a larger segment of the population in jails and prisons, professionals in the mental health field became essential to the correctional administrators.   The ratio of mental health practitioners to inmates remains much too low, there has been some progress.   Because many institutions must deal with mental health issues on a priority basis, few to no services are provided for the majority who do not exhibit violent or bizarre behavior.   It is a practical fact that in corrections â€Å"the squeaky wheel gets the grease† (Steadman, 1991). For some inmates, the impacts of prison life overwhelm their usual coping patterns.   Some factors that lead to prison psychosis include the routine of prison, fear of other inmates, forced homosexual behavior, assault and fear of assault, deteriorating in affairs and circumstances of family on the outside of prison and depression.   When the psychological crisis comes, correctional administrators frequently transfer affected inmates to prison infirmaries or psychological treatment words, or initiate inmate transfer to a mental health system. Long-term and intensive psychotherapy for mentally ill inmates is believed to be rare.   Treatment for episodic mental crisis tends to remain at the first aid level in many states.   Death rows do not usually contain a large proportion of a prison’s population but subsume a disproportionate share of the per inmate cost due to the demands of observing, caring, and maintaining death row.   That includes a lower staff-inmate ratio, mail processing, death-watch officer workload, closer custody during recreational periods and so on.   Some inmates on death row become mentally ill and as such cannot be executed (Ford v. Wainright, 106 S. Ct. 2595, 1986). The state has an additional burden of determining if the death-row inmate is insane, establishing some procedure to restore the inmate to sanity, and then certifying the sanity of the patient-inmate.   Because this would be tantamount to a death sentence and not a favor for the inmate, it is unlikely mental health physicians would undertake that process alone or with any great enthusiasm.   It remains for the states to develop procedures for identifying, diagnosing, treating, and certifying the sanity of death row inmates who claim to be insane (Steadman & Monahan, 1984). For the extreme behavior cases, there are special units for more intensive treatment, such as the one in Washington State.   That unit is a model of how to deal with extreme mentally and behaviorally disordered prisoners.   Unfortunately, that facility can handle only 144 inmates.   The figure is only about one-tenth of the commonly recognized population of inmates who could use more intensive mental health services.   One quickly finds that only the really severe cases are able to be referred to the Special Offender Center. It appears that the relationship between crime and mental disorder has no real cause effect.   It is essential for society to learn more about distinguishing between different kinds of mental illness and their impacts on safe and secure administration of correctional institutions.   It is important to remember that the real link to look for is one that indicates the potential for harm to the mentally ill person and others.   It may be a long time before such options are available to the already overcrowded corrections system in the United States (Wessely & Taylor, 1991). There are two justifications that defendants can invoke in an attempt to relieve themselves of criminal responsibility for a criminal act.   The first is not guilty by reason of insanity and the second is incompetent to stand trial.   In the first instance, offenders do not deny the commission of the act, but assert they lacked the capacity to understand the nature of the act or that it was wrong. The second instance is based on the common law criterion that defendants must be able to understand the charges against them to cooperate with their counsel in the preparation of their own defense.   The procedures for determining competency vary considerably among jurisdictions, but most make it a court decision based on psychiatric testimony.   If defendants are found incompetent to stand trial, then they are usually committed to a mental institution until declared competent (Hans, 1986). Psychiatric judgment of mental abnormality enters into the criminal law in three ways.   Aside from fitness to stand trial and criminal responsibility, if an individual is convicted, psychiatry is often consulted in designing a custodial or treatment program for him or her. One problem in the use of psychiatry in the legal system is that there are vast and irreconcilable differences in the legal standards; fairness is achieved by responding to a specific act with a specific type of reaction while ignoring a mass of details about the accused. On the other hand, in the mental health approach of psychiatry the whole personality of the accused is relevant in determining the state’s response to criminal behavior.   Psychiatry is an applied science, but legal practice makes no such claim.   Clearly, as long as a judge and jury have such important roles in the court process, convicted criminals cannot be treated primarily according to scientific standards.   While it is customary for a judge and jury to participate in the legal process, we would find their dealing with matters of mental health bizarre and while the legal process is typically open to scrutiny by all people affected, the procedures of psychiatry are almost never made public.   The types of accountability of the legal and mental health systems are quite different. If a court correctly describes the facts of a case and chooses the correct legal response to these facts, the court is never held accountable for any negative consequences flowing from its actions, such as the suicide of a convicted offender.   What ultimately happens to the convicted offender or whether the offender’s family must go on welfare is not the court’s concern.   The judge is not bound to such utilitarian considerations.   However the judge is bound by law to a specific range of responses.   Psychiatry, on the other hand, is responsible for how its decisions affect the individual in the future (Galliher, 1989). With the advent of legal insanity and legal incompetence as defenses against criminal conviction caused the development of special asylums for the criminally insane, in most cases just another form of prison without due process protections.   In more recent years those claiming to be not guilty by reason of insanity have been the subjects of considerable debate.   President Nixon sought to have the not guilty by reason of insanity defense abolished.   More informed criminologists point to such problems with the insanity defense as excessive media coverage, suspicion of malingering by the defendant, and conflicting and suspicious testimony by mental health professionals testifying for either the defense or the prosecution. The insanity defense is used in less than 1 percent of all felony cases and of those only one in four are found to be not guilty by reason of insanity.   One study found only the most emotionally and behaviorally disturbed defendants to be successful in their plea and that the successful petitioners had committed more serious offenses.   The decision to acquit is more frequently made in court b y prosecutors, defense attorneys, and the judge, and less frequently by jury members.   Persons acquitted by the not guilty by reason of insanity are generally found less likely than their cohort offenders to commit crimes after release (Hans, 1986). Prosecutors often hope that those accused offenders acquitted through the plea of not guilty by reason of insanity will be institutionalized for a period sufficient to reduce their dangerousness, and to provide both public and safety and some retribution.   The debate continues.   Perhaps the most reasonable solution would be to determine guilt first and then sift the issue of diminished capacity or insanity in that case to the sentencing or case disposition state.   The American Psychiatric Association, following the attack by John Hinckley on the life of President Reagan, recognized that position. As a response, by 1986, twelve states abolished the insanity defense entirely then created guilty by mentally ill statutes in its place.   Under those statues, an offender’s mental illness is acknowledged but not seen as sufficient reason to allow him or her to escape criminal responsibility.   If convicted, offenders are committed to prison.   Some states will provide mental health treatment in the prison setting, but others may transfer the offender to a mental health facility for treatment.   In Georgia, defendants who entered insanity pleas but were determined guilty by mental illness received harsher sentences than their counterparts, whose guilt was determined in trial suggesting increased punishment for the disturbed offender (Callahan, McGreevy & Cirincione, 1992). Persons with mental disability, such as mentally disturbed or disorders, were once scorned, banished, and even burned as evil.   But in more enlightened times we have built backwoods fortresses for them to protect ourselves from contagion.   They have been executed as witches, subjected to exorcism, chained or thrown into gatehouses and prisons to furnish a horrible diversion for the other prisoners.   Before the Middle Ages persons with a mental illness were generally tolerated and usually cared for locally by members of their own family, tribal system, or primitive society. However widespread poverty, disease, and religious fanaticism seemed to trigger intolerance for any unexplainable deviation from the norm.   The mentally disturbed were thought to be possessed by devils and demons and were punished harshly because of it.   The first insane asylum was constructed in Europe in 1408.   From that date until recently the asylum was a dumping ground for all the mentally disordered people that could be neither understood nor cured. In the United States, one after another of the individual states responded to that compelling method of ridding society of misfits, and built numerous institutions during the mid 1800’s.   The inflated claims of cures for mental illness could not stand up against the process of institutionalization and long-term commitments sometimes for a lifetime and not cures became the rules of the day (Ives, 1914). Asylums became yet another invisible empire in America with the punitive excess and lack of care or caring ignored by society. â€Å"Out of sight, out of mind† was the catch phrase of these unfortunates.   With the discovery of tranquilizing drugs, these places became a place where patients were put into a controllable stupor, until a cure could be found.   Because of longer and longer periods of institutionalization usually by family members finally got the attention of the courts. In the 1960’s the rights of all citizens, including the mentally ill and convicts, were being re-examined at every level. The abuses in the back wards of the asylums were brought to light and the counter-reaction was extreme.   In the early 1970’s, state after state adopted policies under the Community Mental Health Act that swept the country.   The essential goal was to release all inmates of the asylums who were not a clear and present danger to themselves and society.   This act flooded the central cities of America with tens of thousands of mentally impaired street people and created poorhouses.   The response by most jurisdictions has been to transfer the problem to the criminal justice system, filling the jails and correctional institutions of America, a process known as transintitutionalization (Arrigo, 2002). There appears to be some confusion between physical disease and mental disease.   Because physicians have made great strides in gaining knowledge about physical disease, it is assumed by some people that this is also true of physicians’ knowledge about mental disease.   That is the tendency is to apply the same standards of competence to both areas of practice, even though this is hardly warranted. The distinction between crime and mental illness is unclear.   Some of the writers assume that nearly all criminal behavior is a manifestation of mental disease.   It seems that the reason for both of these ambiguities is that we really do not know what mental illness is, and that is the reason we cannot distinguish between mental illness and physical illness on the one hand and mental illness and crime on the other.   It is unfortunate that the long indeterminate sentences often given to mentally disordered offenders reflect a fear that those committed might be a problem in the future. It is the expectation that someone is capable of predicting criminal inclination that makes so questionable the programs for treating the mentally disordered.   So, one can see the paradox of requiring psychiatrists to predict behavior and to attach a label to offenders, when that might result in an indefinite or even lifelong commitment to a mental institution for someone who is not really dangerous, such as a false-positive prediction.   The individual is then labeled for custody and treatment in a special area within that institution.   When you consider the wealth of folklore surrounding mental institutions, it becomes clear that a dreadful lifelong stigma accompanies the label of criminally insane.   While the public remains upset by the gaping loophole in the net of justice, the courts continue to seek out equitable ways to deal with the offender who has diminished mental capacity. Reference: Arrigo, B. (2002). â€Å"Transcarceration: A Costructive Ethnology of Mentally-Ill    Offenders†.   Prison Journal 81(2), 162-186. Callahan, L., McGreevy, M., & Cirincione, C. (1992).   â€Å"Measuring the Effects of the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Guilty but Mentally Ill Verdict: Georgia’s 1982 GBMI Reform†.   Law and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Human Behavior 16(4), 447-462. Galliher, J. (1989).   Criminology: Human Rights, Criminal Law, and Crime.   N.J.:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Prentice Hall. Hans, V. (1986).   â€Å"An analysis of Public Attitudes toward the Insanity Defense†.   Criminology 24(3), 393-413. Ives, G. (1914). A History of Penal Methods.   London: S. Paul. Sigurdson, C. (2001).   â€Å"The Mad, The Bad and The Abandoned: The mentally Ill in   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Prisons and Jails†.   Corrections Today 62(7), 162-186. Steadman, H. (1991).   â€Å"Estimating Mental Health Needs and Service Utilization Among   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Prison Inmates.†Ã‚   Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law    19(3), 297-307. Steadman, H. J. & Monahan, J. (1984).   Crime and Mental Disorder.   Washington, D.C.:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   U.S. Department of Justice. Wessely, S., & Taylor, P.J. (1991). â€Å"Madness and Crime: Criminology versus   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Psychiatry†.   Criminal Justice

Apa Research Paper Pdf - What Is It?

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